Science and Technology Policy — Explained

Detailed Explanation

India's journey in shaping its Science and Technology (S&T) Policy has been a dynamic process, reflecting the nation's evolving aspirations, economic realities, and global technological shifts. From a post-colonial nation striving for self-reliance to an emerging global player aiming for technological leadership, the policy framework has adapted, expanded, and diversified.

1. Policy Evolution and Framework

India's S&T policy evolution can be broadly categorized into distinct phases, each marked by a specific resolution or statement that articulated the nation's priorities and approach.

a. Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR), 1958

Origin/History: Post-independence India, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, recognized science as a critical tool for national development and self-reliance. The SPR 1958 was a landmark declaration, emphasizing the government's commitment to fostering scientific research and development. It was heavily influenced by Nehru's 'scientific temper' philosophy.

Objectives:

To foster, promote, and sustain the cultivation of science and scientific research in all its aspects.
To ensure an adequate supply of scientific and technical personnel.
To encourage individual initiative for the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge.
To secure for the people of the country all the benefits that can accrue from the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge.

Implementation Mechanisms: Primarily focused on establishing national laboratories (e.g., CSIR labs), universities, and scientific departments (e.g., Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Space).

Funding was largely state-driven, with a focus on basic research and infrastructure building. Paradigm Shift: Marked the beginning of institutionalized science in India, moving from individual efforts to a state-supported, mission-oriented approach.

Laid the foundation for India's 'temples of modern India'.

b. Technology Policy Statement (TPS), 1983

Origin/History: By the early 1980s, India had built a significant scientific base but faced challenges in translating research into commercial technologies. The TPS 1983, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, aimed to bridge this gap.

Objectives:

To attain technological self-reliance.
To provide maximum gainful employment.
To make the best use of indigenous resources.
To develop technologies which are internationally competitive.
To reduce disparities between rural and urban areas.

Implementation Mechanisms: Emphasized indigenous technology development, efficient absorption of imported technology, and technology transfer mechanisms. Focused on strengthening linkages between R&D institutions and industry.

The Technology Development Board (TDB) was later established to promote commercialization of indigenous technology. Paradigm Shift: Shifted focus from 'science for science' to 'science for technology and development'.

Introduced the concept of technology acquisition and absorption, recognizing the need for both indigenous and imported solutions.

c. Science and Technology Policy (STP), 2003

Origin/History: The new millennium brought rapid globalization, the rise of information technology, and increased awareness of intellectual property rights. The STP 2003 sought to address these contemporary challenges.

Objectives:

To encourage private sector participation in R&D.
To promote public-private partnerships (PPPs).
To strengthen intellectual property rights (IPR) regime.
To foster innovation and entrepreneurship.
To integrate S&T with socio-economic sectors.

Implementation Mechanisms: Focused on creating an innovation ecosystem, promoting IPR awareness, and encouraging venture capital for technology startups. Emphasized international collaboration and benchmarking. Paradigm Shift: Recognized the importance of innovation, IPR, and private sector involvement, moving beyond a purely government-centric approach. Acknowledged the globalized nature of S&T.

d. Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP), 2013

Origin/History: Building on the 2003 policy, STIP 2013 was formulated against the backdrop of India's aspirations to be a global economic power and address grand societal challenges like food security, energy, and healthcare. It explicitly linked science, technology, and innovation.

Objectives:

To position India among the top five global scientific powers.
To foster a culture of innovation across all sectors.
To promote inclusive growth through S&T interventions.
To strengthen the S&T infrastructure and human resource base.
To integrate S&T with national development goals.

Implementation Mechanisms: Proposed the creation of a National Innovation System, emphasized open science, public engagement, and leveraging traditional knowledge. Focused on mission-mode projects and grand challenges. Paradigm Shift: The most significant shift was the explicit inclusion of 'Innovation' as a core component, recognizing its role as a driver for economic growth and societal impact. It moved towards an 'ecosystem' approach rather than just 'policy'.

e. Post-2013 Developments and Emerging Policy Landscape

Since STIP 2013, India's S&T policy has become more granular and mission-oriented, responding to specific strategic needs and global technological trends.

National Research Foundation (NRF): — Proposed in the National Education Policy 2020 and approved in 2023, the NRF aims to seed, grow, and facilitate research and development across universities, colleges, research institutions, and R&D laboratories. It seeks to create a robust research ecosystem, especially in state universities, by providing competitive peer-reviewed funding. This addresses the long-standing issue of fragmented research funding and lack of a unified national research agenda. for more on NEP 2020.
National Quantum Mission (NQM): — Launched in 2023 with an outlay of over ₹6,000 crore, NQM aims to make India a leading nation in Quantum Technologies and Applications (QTA). It focuses on quantum computing, quantum communication, quantum sensing and metrology, and quantum materials. This is a strategic move to leapfrog in critical future technologies.
National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS): — Approved in 2018, this mission aims to create a strong foundation and a seamless ecosystem for Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) technologies. It focuses on areas like Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Robotics, IoT, and Big Data Analytics, crucial for Industry 4.0.
Semiconductor Policy and FAB Incentives: — Recognizing the strategic importance of semiconductors, India has rolled out significant incentives (e.g., India Semiconductor Mission, Production Linked Incentive schemes) to attract global and domestic players to set up semiconductor fabrication units (FABs), design, and ATMP (Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging) facilities. This is critical for reducing import dependence and enhancing technological sovereignty.
Atmanirbhar Bharat R&D Measures: — As part of the broader Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India) initiative, specific measures have been announced to boost indigenous R&D, manufacturing, and innovation across various sectors, including defense, space, and pharmaceuticals. This includes increased public procurement from Indian R&D, promoting local value addition, and fostering domestic innovation.
Science Diplomacy Initiatives: — India actively engages in bilateral and multilateral S&T cooperation, participating in global research projects, sharing expertise, and leveraging S&T for diplomatic outreach. Examples include collaborations with CERN, BRICS S&T cooperation, and initiatives under QUAD.

Timeline of Milestones:

1958: — Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR)
1969: — First Indian satellite, Aryabhata, launched (though in 1975, conceptualization began earlier)
1974: — Pokhran-I (Smiling Buddha) nuclear test
1983: — Technology Policy Statement (TPS)
1984: — Department of Biotechnology (DBT) established
1998: — Pokhran-II nuclear tests
2003: — Science and Technology Policy (STP)
2008: — Chandrayaan-1 Mission
2013: — Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP)
2014: — Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan)
2018: — National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) approved
2020: — National Education Policy (NEP) proposes National Research Foundation (NRF)
2021: — India Semiconductor Mission launched
2023: — National Research Foundation (NRF) Bill passed; National Quantum Mission launched.

2. Institutional Architecture

India's S&T ecosystem is supported by a multi-layered institutional architecture, comprising various ministries, departments, autonomous bodies, and research councils. These institutions play distinct yet often overlapping roles in policy formulation, funding, research execution, and technology dissemination.

a. Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST)

Mandate: The apex ministry for S&T, responsible for policy formulation, promotion, and coordination of scientific and technological activities. It comprises three departments:

Department of Science & Technology (DST):

* Roles: Nodal department for formulating S&T policies, promoting new areas of S&T, coordinating S&T activities, international S&T cooperation, and funding basic and applied research across various scientific disciplines.

It supports research in universities, national labs, and private R&D institutions. Key initiatives include INSPIRE (Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research), SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board), and various technology development programs.

* Governance: Headed by a Secretary to the Government of India. Operates through various autonomous institutions, councils, and funding agencies under its purview. * Funding Lines: Provides grants for research projects, fellowships, infrastructure development, and technology incubation.

Major funding agency for academic and institutional research.

Department of Biotechnology (DBT):

* Roles: Nodal department for promotion of biotechnology in India. Focuses on R&D in areas like medical biotechnology, agricultural biotechnology, industrial biotechnology, environmental biotechnology, and bio-resource development.

Supports biotech parks, incubators, and human resource development. * Governance: Functions through autonomous institutions and public sector undertakings dedicated to biotechnology research and development.

* Funding Lines: Funds research projects, infrastructure, and human resource development specifically in biotechnology.

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR):

* Roles: Promotes industrial research and development, technology development, transfer, and utilization. Facilitates linkages between scientific research institutions and industry. Administers schemes for promoting in-house R&D in industry and provides recognition to R&D units.

* Governance: Works closely with industry associations and research organizations to foster an innovation-driven industrial ecosystem. * Funding Lines: Provides financial support for industrial R&D projects, technology commercialization, and promotes technology transfer.

b. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)

Mandate: India's largest R&D organization, known for its multidisciplinary research in diverse areas of science and technology. Focuses on applied research with industrial and societal relevance. Roles: Conducts research in areas like aerospace, biotechnology, chemicals, drugs, electronics, energy, environment, food, mining, materials, and leather.

Develops technologies for various industries and provides scientific and technical services. Governance: An autonomous body under the Ministry of Science and Technology, headed by the Prime Minister as its President and the Minister of Science & Technology as Vice-President.

Governed by a Governing Body and a Director-General. Funding Lines: Primarily funded by the government, also generates revenue through contract research, consultancy, and technology licensing. Overlaps: While DST funds basic research, CSIR focuses on applied research and technology development, often collaborating with industry, which also aligns with DSIR's mandate.

c. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)

Mandate: Apex body in India for the formulation, coordination, and promotion of biomedical research. Roles: Conducts, coordinates, and promotes biomedical research in areas such as communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases, maternal and child health, nutrition, and environmental health.

Develops health research capacity and translates research findings into public health interventions. Governance: An autonomous body under the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.

Headed by a Director-General. Funding Lines: Primarily government-funded, also receives grants for specific research programs.

d. Technology Development Board (TDB)

Mandate: A statutory body established under the Technology Development Board Act, 1995, to promote the development and commercialization of indigenous technology and adaptation of imported technology.

Roles: Provides financial assistance to industrial concerns and other agencies for projects involving the development and commercialization of innovative technologies. Acts as a bridge between research institutions and industry.

Governance: Functions under the Department of Science & Technology. Funding Lines: Provides equity, soft loans, and grants for technology development and commercialization projects.

e. Other Key Institutions and Ministries

Department of Atomic Energy (DAE): — Responsible for nuclear power generation, applications of radiation and radioisotopes, and basic research in nuclear science. Operates under the Prime Minister's Office.
Department of Space (DoS): — Responsible for India's space program, including satellite development, launch vehicles, and space applications. Operates under the Prime Minister's Office.
Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES): — Deals with meteorology, oceanography, seismology, and polar sciences.
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO): — Under the Ministry of Defence, responsible for R&D in defense technologies.
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY): — Focuses on IT policy, electronics manufacturing, and digital governance.
State S&T Directorates/Councils: — Most states have their own S&T departments or councils to promote S&T at the state level, often focusing on local needs and capacity building. They act as implementing agencies for central schemes and initiate state-specific programs.

Organizational Charts and Accountability Lines: The overall S&T governance structure is largely hierarchical, with MoST playing a central coordinating role. However, specialized departments like DAE and DoS report directly to the Prime Minister, reflecting their strategic importance.

Autonomous bodies like CSIR and ICMR have their own governing councils but are ultimately accountable to their respective ministries. Funding flows primarily from the Union Budget to these ministries and then to their departments and autonomous bodies, with increasing emphasis on competitive, peer-reviewed grants.

3. Funding Mechanisms and Budget Analysis

Funding is the lifeblood of any S&T ecosystem. India's R&D expenditure has seen growth, but challenges remain in achieving globally competitive levels.

a. Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) Trends

India's GERD has consistently increased in absolute terms over the past decade. However, as a percentage of GDP, it has largely hovered around 0.6% to 0.7%, which is significantly lower than leading innovation economies. For instance, South Korea spends over 4.5% of its GDP on R&D, USA around 3.4%, and China over 2.4% [Source: UNESCO, World Bank data, DST reports]. This indicates a need for substantial increase in R&D investment to realize India's scientific aspirations.

Table: India's Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) (Approximate Figures)

Year	GERD (₹ Crores)	GERD (% of GDP)	Primary Source
2011-12	65,000	0.64	DST, R&D Statistics
2012-13	72,000	0.63	DST, R&D Statistics
2013-14	80,000	0.64	DST, R&D Statistics
2014-15	89,000	0.64	DST, R&D Statistics
2015-16	98,000	0.65	DST, R&D Statistics
2016-17	1,07,000	0.66	DST, R&D Statistics
2017-18	1,18,000	0.68	DST, R&D Statistics
2018-19	1,28,000	0.69	DST, R&D Statistics
2019-20	1,39,000	0.70	DST, R&D Statistics
2020-21	1,48,000	0.70	DST, R&D Statistics
2021-22	1,55,000	0.69	DST, R&D Statistics
2022-23	1,65,000	0.68	DST, R&D Statistics (Estimated)

*(Note: Figures are approximate and subject to revision by official sources. The % of GDP can fluctuate based on GDP growth rates.)*

b. Central vs. State vs. Private Share

Historically, the central government has been the largest contributor to GERD, accounting for over 40-50%. State governments contribute a smaller share (around 6-7%), primarily through state S&T councils and universities.

The private sector's contribution, while growing, still lags behind developed economies. In India, the private sector accounts for roughly 35-40% of GERD, whereas in countries like the USA, Japan, and South Korea, it often exceeds 70%.

This imbalance highlights the need for greater private sector investment and participation in R&D.

c. Major Central Schemes and Funding Agencies

Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB): — An autonomous body under DST, SERB provides financial assistance to scientists for basic research in all disciplines of Science and Engineering.
Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC): — A PSU under DBT, BIRAC supports innovation and entrepreneurship in the biotech sector, providing funding for startups and SMEs.
Technology Development Fund (TDF) (DRDO): — Supports indigenous development of defense technologies.
IMPRINT (Impacting Research Innovation and Technology): — A joint initiative of DST and MHRD (now MoE) to provide solutions to major engineering and technology challenges.
National Research Foundation (NRF): — Envisioned as a major game-changer, the NRF will consolidate and streamline research funding across disciplines, with a significant portion of its budget expected to come from non-governmental sources and industry contributions, alongside government grants.

d. Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Models

India is increasingly adopting PPP models to leverage private sector efficiency and funding. Examples include:

Technology Business Incubators (TBIs): — Supported by DST and DBT, these incubators foster startups and provide infrastructure, mentorship, and seed funding, often with private sector collaboration.
Centres of Excellence (CoEs): — Established in collaboration with industry to focus on specific technological areas.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) for R&D: — Companies are encouraged to utilize their CSR funds for scientific research and technology development.

e. International Comparisons

India's GERD as a percentage of GDP, while showing growth, remains low compared to global leaders. This impacts research output, patenting activity, and overall innovation competitiveness. The number of researchers per million population is also lower. The challenge lies not just in increasing absolute spending but in improving the efficiency of expenditure, fostering a strong research culture, and attracting more private and international investment.

4. Constitutional and Legal Framework

While there isn't a single 'Science and Technology Act', various constitutional provisions and legal statutes underpin and influence India's S&T policy.

a. Article 51A(h) - Fundamental Duty

As mentioned in the authority text, Article 51A(h) mandates citizens 'to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform'. This serves as a guiding principle for policy-makers to promote scientific education and research, fostering a rational outlook in society. It provides a moral and ethical foundation for S&T endeavors.

b. Relevant Concurrent List Entries

Science and Technology is not explicitly mentioned as a standalone entry in any list. However, several entries in the Concurrent List (Seventh Schedule) allow both the Union and State governments to legislate on matters related to S&T:

Entry 18: — 'Factories' – influences industrial R&D and technology adoption.
Entry 20: — 'Economic and Social Planning' – S&T is integral to national planning.
Entry 25: — 'Education, including technical education, medical education and universities' – directly impacts S&T human resource development and research in academic institutions.
Entry 42: — 'Statistics' – essential for S&T policy formulation and evaluation.
Entry 46: — 'Forests' and Entry 47: 'Protection of wild animals and birds' – relevant for environmental S&T and biodiversity research.

c. Key Statutes/Regulations Affecting S&T Policy and R&D

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Law Intersection:

* The Patents Act, 1970 (as amended): Governs the grant and enforcement of patents, crucial for protecting inventions resulting from R&D. It balances inventor rights with public interest, particularly in pharmaceuticals.

Policy aims to encourage patenting and commercialization of indigenous innovations. * The Copyright Act, 1957: Protects literary and artistic works, including software and scientific publications.

* The Designs Act, 2000, The Trademarks Act, 1999, The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999: Collectively form the IPR framework that incentivizes innovation and protects its commercial value.

Biotechnology Rules:

* Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989 (under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986): These rules, administered by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, regulate research and development involving genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their environmental release.

They ensure biosafety and ethical considerations in biotechnology research. * National Biotechnology Development Strategy: While not a statute, it provides policy direction for the sector, influencing research priorities and regulatory approaches.

Research Ethics:

* National Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical and Health Research involving Human Participants (ICMR): These guidelines provide a framework for ethical conduct of research involving human subjects, ensuring protection of rights, safety, and well-being.

They cover informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, and institutional ethics committees. * Guidelines for Good Clinical Practice (GCP): Issued by the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), these ensure quality and integrity in clinical trials.

* Animal Welfare Act, 1960 and rules thereunder: Regulates research involving animals, ensuring humane treatment and minimizing suffering.

d. Policy Implications

This legal framework provides both opportunities and constraints. It enables the government to promote S&T through funding and institutional support, while also imposing regulatory safeguards, particularly in sensitive areas like biotechnology and human research.

The IPR regime is critical for incentivizing private sector R&D and technology commercialization. However, balancing IPR protection with public access and affordability, especially in health and agriculture, remains a continuous policy challenge.

5. Current Policy Initiatives

India's current S&T policy landscape is characterized by ambitious, mission-mode initiatives aimed at addressing grand challenges and securing leadership in emerging technologies.

a. National Research Foundation (NRF)

Objectives: To catalyze and strengthen research and innovation across all universities and colleges, particularly state universities, by providing competitive peer-reviewed funding. It aims to create a culture of research, bridge gaps in research infrastructure, and promote interdisciplinary research.

Funding: Approved outlay of ₹50,000 crore over five years (2023-2028), with ₹10,000 crore from the government and ₹40,000 crore expected from private sector contributions, philanthropic organizations, and international collaborations.

Expected Outcomes: A robust and equitable research ecosystem, increased research output, enhanced quality of research, greater industry-academia collaboration, and positioning India as a global research hub.

UPSC Relevance: High. NRF is a transformative initiative impacting higher education, research funding, and India's innovation capacity. Questions can focus on its objectives, funding model, potential impact, and challenges in implementation.

It connects to NEP 2020 and the broader goal of 'Viksit Bharat'.

b. National Quantum Mission (NQM)

Objectives: To make India a leading nation in Quantum Technologies and Applications (QTA). This includes developing quantum computers, secure quantum communication systems, advanced quantum sensors, and new quantum materials.

It aims for indigenous development and commercialization. Funding: Outlay of ₹6,003.65 crore for the period 2023-24 to 2030-31. Expected Outcomes: Development of quantum computing hardware and software, secure communication networks, ultra-precise sensors, and a skilled workforce in quantum technologies.

Strategic autonomy in a critical future technology. UPSC Relevance: High. Quantum technology is a frontier area with significant implications for national security, economy, and scientific advancement.

Questions can cover its strategic importance, applications, ethical concerns, and India's preparedness.

c. National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS)

Objectives: To create a strong foundation and a seamless ecosystem for Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) technologies. This involves developing and deploying technologies like AI, ML, IoT, Robotics, and Big Data across various sectors.

Funding: Outlay of ₹3,660 crore for five years (2018-19 to 2022-23), extended subsequently. Expected Outcomes: Development of 15 Technology Innovation Hubs (TIHs), 6 Application Innovation Hubs (AIHs), and 4 Sectoral Application Hubs (SAHs) across the country.

Creation of a skilled workforce, technology development, and deployment in areas like smart manufacturing, smart cities, and healthcare. UPSC Relevance: Medium to High. CPS is foundational for Industry 4.

0 and digital transformation. Questions can explore its role in economic growth, skill development, and specific applications.

d. Semiconductor Policy and FAB Incentives (India Semiconductor Mission - ISM)

Objectives: To build a sustainable semiconductor and display ecosystem in the country. This includes attracting significant investments in semiconductor fabrication (FABs), design, and Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging (ATMP) facilities.

Funding: An incentive scheme of ₹76,000 crore (approx. $10 billion) for the development of a semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem. This includes capital expenditure support, design-linked incentives, and support for compound semiconductors.

Expected Outcomes: Establishment of semiconductor manufacturing units, creation of a robust supply chain, reduction in import dependence, job creation, and positioning India as a global hub for semiconductor design and manufacturing.

UPSC Relevance: High. Semiconductors are critical for almost all modern technology. This policy addresses strategic autonomy, economic security, and industrial growth. Questions can focus on its economic implications, geopolitical significance, and challenges in implementation.

e. Atmanirbhar Bharat R&D Measures

Objectives: To foster self-reliance in critical technologies and manufacturing through enhanced indigenous R&D. This is a broader umbrella under which specific sectoral initiatives are launched. Funding: Integrated into various ministry budgets and schemes, with a focus on increasing domestic procurement and R&D spending.

Expected Outcomes: Reduced import dependence, increased domestic manufacturing capabilities, stronger innovation ecosystem, and enhanced national resilience in strategic sectors like defense, space, and pharmaceuticals.

UPSC Relevance: High. Atmanirbhar Bharat is a core government philosophy. Questions can link S&T to national self-reliance, economic growth, and specific sectoral advancements.

f. Science Diplomacy Initiatives

Objectives: To leverage S&T cooperation for diplomatic outreach, enhance India's global standing, address global challenges (e.g., climate change, pandemics), and access advanced technologies and expertise.

Funding: Integrated into the budgets of MoST, MEA, and specific mission-mode projects. Expected Outcomes: Bilateral and multilateral research collaborations, joint technology development, capacity building in partner countries, and enhanced soft power for India.

Participation in global scientific governance. UPSC Relevance: Medium. Science diplomacy highlights the intersection of S&T with international relations. Questions can explore its role in foreign policy, addressing global challenges, and specific examples of cooperation.

Vyyuha Analysis: The Policy-Implementation Gap in India's Science Ecosystem

(This section is detailed in vyyuha_protections and is referenced here for logical flow.)

Inter-Topic Connections

India's S&T policy is deeply intertwined with several other UPSC syllabus topics. It forms the backbone of economic development by driving innovation, creating new industries, and enhancing productivity.

Its focus on sustainable development is evident in policies promoting renewable energy, climate-resilient agriculture, and environmental protection. The emphasis on human resource development through S&T education and research directly impacts the demographic dividend.

National security is profoundly influenced by advancements in defense technology, space, and cybersecurity. Furthermore, S&T policy is a critical instrument of foreign policy and international relations through science diplomacy and global collaborations.

The legal and constitutional aspects connect it to Indian Polity and Governance, particularly regarding IPR, regulatory frameworks, and fundamental duties. Understanding these linkages is crucial for a holistic UPSC preparation.

References:

Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. (Various years). R&D Statistics and Indicators. [URL: https://dst.gov.in/](https://dst.gov.in/)
NITI Aayog. (Various reports). Strategy for New India @75. [URL: https://www.niti.gov.in/](https://www.niti.gov.in/)
The Constitution of India. (Article 51A(h)).
PRS Legislative Research. (Various policy briefs and analyses). [URL: https://www.prsindia.org/](https://www.prsindia.org/)
UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (Latest data on R&D expenditure). [URL: http://uis.unesco.org/](http://uis.unesco.org/)
The Patents Act, 1970.
Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989.
ICMR National Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical and Health Research involving Human Participants, 2017.
The National Research Foundation Bill, 2023.
Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India. (Various press releases on NQM, ISM, etc.). [URL: https://pib.gov.in/](https://pib.gov.in/)