Fundamental Rights — Legal Reforms

Entry	Year	Description	Impact
1st Amendment	1951	Added Article 15(4) enabling special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes, and Articles 31A and 31B providing immunity to certain laws from fundamental rights challenges, including the Ninth Schedule.	Established the constitutional framework for affirmative action and social justice measures while protecting land reform legislation from judicial review, balancing individual rights with social transformation needs.
25th Amendment	1971	Modified Article 31 to state that compensation for property acquisition need not be equivalent to market value, and added Article 31C giving precedence to DPSP over Articles 14 and 19 in certain cases.	Reduced the scope of property rights and attempted to prioritize social welfare policies over individual property interests, though Article 31C was later struck down by the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills case.
42nd Amendment	1976	Added words 'socialist' and 'secular' to the Preamble, inserted Articles 51A (Fundamental Duties), and attempted to give unlimited amending power to Parliament while placing DPSP above Fundamental Rights.	Significantly altered the constitutional balance by trying to limit judicial review and expand state power, though key provisions were later struck down in Minerva Mills case, restoring the balance between rights and duties.
44th Amendment	1978	Removed the right to property from Fundamental Rights (deleted Article 31), made it a constitutional right under Article 300A, and ensured that Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended during emergency.	Restored the balance between individual rights and state power after the Emergency experience, strengthened protection of life and liberty, and facilitated land reforms by removing property as a fundamental right.
86th Amendment	2002	Inserted Article 21A making free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14 years a fundamental right, and modified Article 45 to extend DPSP coverage to early childhood care and education.	Transformed education from a directive principle to a justiciable fundamental right, creating legal obligations for the state to provide quality education and enabling judicial enforcement of educational rights.
93rd Amendment	2005	Added clause (5) to Article 15 enabling the state to make special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes in private educational institutions, including aided and unaided institutions.	Extended reservation policy to private educational institutions while protecting minority rights, balancing social justice objectives with institutional autonomy and creating framework for inclusive education.
103rd Amendment	2019	Inserted clauses (6) in Articles 15 and 16 providing 10% reservation for economically weaker sections among forward castes in education and employment, subject to income and asset criteria.	Introduced economic criteria for reservations for the first time, expanding affirmative action beyond caste-based categories while maintaining the 50% ceiling through separate provision, addressing economic inequality across social groups.