Mahmud of Ghazni — Key Changes

Entry	Year	Description	Impact
First Major Expedition (Battle of Peshawar)	1001 CE	Mahmud's first significant encounter with the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala, resulting in a decisive Ghaznavid victory. Jayapala's subsequent self-immolation marked a psychological blow to Indian resistance.	Shattered the Hindu Shahi military power, opening the northwestern frontier of India for deeper incursions. Established Mahmud's military superiority.
Defeat of Indian Confederacy (Battle of Waihind)	1008 CE	Mahmud defeated a grand confederacy of Indian rulers led by Anandapala, Jayapala's son. This was the most organized attempt to repel Mahmud.	Broke the back of unified Indian resistance, allowing Mahmud virtually unimpeded access to the rich Gangetic plains and central India for subsequent raids.
Sack of Mathura and Kannauj	1018 CE	Mahmud penetrated deep into the Gangetic plains, sacking the wealthy and culturally significant cities of Mathura and Kannauj, destroying numerous temples and acquiring vast treasures.	Demonstrated Mahmud's ability to project power far into India, further weakening the Pratihara kingdom and causing immense economic and cultural devastation in the heartland.
Somnath Expedition	1025 CE	Mahmud's most famous campaign, involving a perilous march to the revered Somnath temple in Gujarat. The temple was sacked, its idol destroyed, and immense wealth plundered.	Provided an unprecedented amount of wealth to the Ghaznavid treasury, cemented Mahmud's image as an iconoclast, and left a lasting scar on Indian historical memory regarding foreign invasions and religious desecration.
Last Major Expedition (Against Jats)	1027 CE	Mahmud's final campaign in India was against the Jats of Sindh, who had harassed his army during its return from Somnath. He reportedly used a fleet of boats to defeat them.	Secured the route for his return and demonstrated his continued military dominance even in the final years of his reign, ensuring safe passage for his plundered wealth.